Discussion then shifts to specific types of host-pathogen relationships. The most important of these in the tropics is the relationship between humans, a pathogen, and a vector that carries the pathogen from one human to another. Mosquitoes are the vector responsible for the transmission of many vector-borne human diseases. Characteristics of mosquito-human interactions are described, including cultural behaviors humans have developed that both increase the chances of transmission and help to limit that transmission.
The transmission of water-borne diseases, fecal-oral transmission, zoonotic diseases, respiratory illnesses, and sexually transmitted diseases are also discussed. Attention is paid to how diseases with these modes of transmission differ in characteristics and importance in tropical human populations compared to those in temperate regions. These include water quality monitoring, drinking water treatment standards and practices, beach closures, and issuing advisories for boiling drinking water and harvesting shellfish.
Climate change and the direct impacts of higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are expected to affect food safety and nutrition. The food system involves a network of interactions with our physical and biological environments as food moves from production to consumption, or from "farm to table.
Any changes in a person's physical health or surrounding environment can also have serious impacts on their mental health. In particular, experiencing an extreme weather event can cause stress and other mental health consequences, particularly when a person loses loved ones or their home. Learn about how climate change will affect your health over the course of your life, and see its impacts on eight different populations of concern. Some groups of people are more vulnerable than others to health risks from climate change.
For example, while older adults are sensitive to extreme heat, an older person living in an air-conditioned apartment won't be exposed as long as she stays indoors, and as long as she can afford to pay for the electricity to run the air conditioner.
Her ability take these actions is a measure of her adaptive capacity. Some populations are especially vulnerable to climate health risks due to particular sensitivities, high likelihood of exposure, low adaptive capacity, or combinations of these factors. Other linkages exist between climate change and human health. For example, changes in temperature and precipitation, as well as droughts and floods, will affect agricultural yields and production.
The worst of these effects are projected to occur in developing countries, among vulnerable populations. Although the impacts of climate change have the potential to affect human health in the United States and around the world, there is a lot we can do to prepare for and adapt to these changes—such as establishing early warning systems for heat waves and other extreme events, taking steps to reduce vulnerabilities among populations of concern, raising awareness among healthcare professionals, and ensuring that infrastructure is built to accommodate anticipated future changes in climate.
Understanding the threats that climate change poses to human health is the first step in working together to lower risks and be prepared. Crimmins, A. Balbus, J. Gamble, C. Beard, J. Bell, D. Dodgen, R. Eisen, N. Fann, M. Hawkins, S. Herring, L. Jantarasami, D. Mills, S. Saha, M. Sarofim, J. Trtanj, and L. Ziska, Eds. Luber, G. Knowlton, J. Balbus, H. Frumkin, M. Hayden, J.
Hess, M. McGeehin, N. Sheats, L. Backer, C. Beard, K. Ebi, E. Maibach, R. Ostfeld, C. Wiedinmyer, E. Ziska, Ch. Melillo, Terese T. Richmond, and G. Yohe, Eds. Global Change Research Program, Karl, T.
Melillo, and T. Peterson eds. CCSP Analyses of the effects of global change on human health and welfare and human systems. A Report by the U. This makes some aspects of the climate predictable on horizons of months to a year, though again it does not allow prediction of the specific weather on any given day that far in advance. Boer, G. Analyzed and forecast large-scale tropical divergent flow. Monthly Weather Review , Bond, N. On the Madden Julian oscillation and precipitation in Oregon and Washington.
Weather Forecasting 18 , Bretherton, C. An energy-balance analysis of deep convective self-aggregation above uniform SST. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 62 , Cassou, C. Intraseasonal interaction between the Madden-Julian oscillation and the North Atlantic oscillation.
Nature , Gruber, A. The wavenumber-frequency spectra of satellite-measured brightness in the tropics. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 31 , Jones, C. Occurrence of extreme precipitation events in California and relationships with the Madden Julian oscillation. Journal of Climate 13 , Liu, C. Effects of convectively generated gravity waves and rotation on the organization of convection. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 61 , Lorenz, E.
The predictability of a flow which possesses many scales of motion. Tellus 21 , Madden, R. Detection of a day oscillation in the zonal wind in the tropical Pacific.
Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 28 , Description of global-scale circulation cells in the tropics with a day period. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 29 , Observations of the day tropical oscillation: A review. Mapes, B. Gregarious tropical convection. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 50 , Cloud clusters and superclusters over the oceanic warm pool.
Matsuno, T. Quasi-geostrophic motions in the equatorial area. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 44 , Philander, S. Academic Press, Reed, R. Structure and properties of synoptic-scale wave disturbances in the equatorial western Pacific. Sarachik, E. Stevens, A. Introduction to the basic drivers of climate. Nature Education Knowledge 2 , Takayabu, Y.
Large-scale cloud disturbances associated with equatorial waves. Part I: Spectral features of the cloud disturbances. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 72 , Wallace, J. Observational evidence of Kelvin waves in the tropical stratosphere.
Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 25 , Wheeler, M. Convectively coupled equatorial waves: Analysis of clouds and temperature in the wavenumber-frequency domain. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 56 , Real-time monitoring and prediction of modes of coherent synoptic to intraseasonal tropical variability.
Yanai, M. Stratospheric wave disturbances propagating over the equatorial Pacific. Zangvil, A. Temporal and spatial behavior of large-scale disturbances in tropical cloudiness deduced from satellite brightness data. Global Change: An Overview. Conservation of Biodiversity. Introduction to the Basic Drivers of Climate.
0コメント